The Structure of Scientific Thought

Study guide #3

Evaluating theories

Questions on Kosso pp. 13-19

1. 1. According to Kosso, what are some key features of theories?  Give some examples of scientific theories.

   2. How important are theories to the aims of science?

   3. Is it ever possible to logically prove a theory in science?  Give a brief argument to support your answer.

2. What is an "imaging theory" (I like to call them "bridging theories"), and why are they important in science?

Questions on Popper's View of Science

3. According to Popper, what is the defining feature of Scientific theory as opposed to a nonscientific theory? Is a theory scientific just because it agrees with experience. Provide an argument to support your answer.

4. Explain how can a true claim be falsifiable.

5. 1. According to Popper, why is astrology a pseudo-science?  How could we change astrology to make it into a scientific theory by Popper's standards?

   2. Answer the same questions as in (a) for  Freudian psychology and Marxist theory.

6. 1. What are the defining characteristics of a risky prediction?

   2. What is a genuine test?

7. Why does Popper believe that Einstein's theory of general relativity qualifies as an excellent example of a scientific theory?

8. Explain in detail how and where Popper's model of hypothesis testing using deductive reasoning and where it cannot use deductive reasoning.

9. What are some important differences between Bacon's and Popper's views of the aims and methods of science?  In what ways are they similar?  Do you see a role for both in modern science, and why (i.e. support your view with an argument.)

10. On pp. 51-52  of Before the Beginning Ellis describes a situation  which led scientists to reject the hypothesis that the universe is static.  Show how this situation fits the pattern of a "crucial test".

11. On  pp. 52-54 Ellis describes the development and acceptance of the Hot Big Bang Theory.

    1. Identify the important steps in this story, showing how it might be construed as a sequence of conjectures and refutations.

     

    2. What important components of this story are ignored by or don't fit well with Popper's philosophy of science?

12. (Kosso Chapt. 4.)

    1. Define "Auxiliary Theory".

    2. Explain how auxiliary theories provide a problem for Popper's description of the scientific method and the logic of refutation.  Use the examples discussed in Ellis pp. 51-54 to illustrate your points.

13. Using the example of the discovery of Neptune discussed in Kosso p. 83-85, explain the difference between a bad "ad hoc" revision and an "good" revision.

14. Consider the following claim: There really are no crucial tests in science.  Using material from the readings, develop a plausible argument in support of this claim. If true, what are the implication of this claim for the goal of objective, error proof scientific knowledge?

Questions on the material under "Choosing the Best Explanation"

15. What are the most important differences between abduction and induction?

16. Give a clear definition of Sober's "Surprise Principle".  Be able to apply it to a simple example. B. In what ways does the use of Sober's surprise principle differ from Popper's method of conjecture and refutation?

17. What is the difference between the "Internal virtues" and the "External virtues" of a theory?

18. 1. Be able to define the following internal virtues, and give an application of each: entrenchment, explanatory cooperation, simplicity (aka parsimony).

    2. Does the use of entrenchment help or hinder scientists in achieving the goal of error-free and objective scientific knowledge?  What do think the appropriate role of entrenchment should be in science?  Develop arguments in favor of your position, using concrete examples for support.

    3. Answer the same questions as in (b) for the virtue of  simplicity or beauty.

19. What is the "tradeoff" problem in connection with the internal virtues?  What are the implications of this problem for the objectivity of science?

20. According to Ellis pp. 14-21 is there a single recipe for doing good science that can be called "THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD"?  If so, what is it?  If not, why not? Support your claims with specific facts and arguments.

21. (Kosso Chapt. 5)

    1. What is meant by saying that two theories are empirically equivalent? Give a concrete example of two empirically equivalent theories.

    2. Explain the connection between empirically equivalent theories and the so-called "underdetermination" problem.

    3. Explain the connection between the underdetermination problem and the internal virtues.

22. Explain why Sober’s “Surprise Principle” (AKA“the Likelihood Principle) is useless in solving the underdetermination problem.

23. Kosso discusses two responses to the underdetermination problem: empiricism and realism.  Describe the important features of each, and how they differ.

24. Presumably Francis Bacon would not approve of using the internal virtues in science.

    1. Explain why he would not approve of the internal virtues.

    2. Is he right about this? Should they and can they be eliminated from science?

25. Are scientific disciplines that rely heavily on internal virtues inferior to those that don't?  Give an argument for your answer.

26. Using the material studied so far,  in your view is there a single recipe for doing good science that can be called "THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD"?  If so, what is it?  If not, why not? Support your claims with specific facts and arguments.